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THE FOUR Gospel records cover a period of about thirty-five years. The amount of archaeological evidence from this brief period might be expected to be minimal. However, archaeology is not limited to looking at stones and pottery, but includes the study of antiquities of every kind. The Gospel records themselves could be classed as antiquities.(Footnote 1)

Archaeology and the Christian shrines

Visitors to the Holy Land are shown many ‘holy shrines’, where it is said that certain events took place. Archaeological investigation has shown that few of these are what they are claimed to be. For example, there are two rival sites for the tomb in which Jesus was laid: the Holy Sepulchre and the Garden Tomb. Archaeologists have reported that neither of them have the characteristics of a first-century tomb, but probably date from many centuries previously, so neither qualify for the “new tomb” that had been prepared for Joseph of Arimathea (Mt. 27:60).

The Ecce Homo arch, where Pilate is supposed to have said “Behold the man!” (Jno. 19:5), was constructed by Hadrian many years later. The place today called the Pavement (Jno. 19:13) had not been constructed in the time of Jesus. It must be remembered by visitors to Jerusalem that the city as seen by Jesus was utterly destroyed by the Romans in 70 A.D., thus obliterating most of the features that were known to him. Although the Via Dolorosa may follow the approximate route taken by Jesus to his death, in view of the destruction and later rebuilding of the city there can be no certainty.

However, there are features that have not greatly changed. Of these, the Temple Mount is the most obvious. It is still the largest religious structure in the world, and is basically as built at the behest of Herod the Great. It is a mute memorial to the events recorded in the Gospels, even though the temple no longer stands where it did. To reach the temple precincts there can be no doubt that Jesus trod the steps that have been uncovered recently at the south wall of the Temple Mount. He would enter by the Huldah Gates; these have been blocked for centuries, but their position is still visible now that the rubble of destruction has been removed.

Other sites that would appear to be identical with the description in the Gospels include the Garden of Gethsemane, the Pool of Bethesda, and the Pool of Siloam, which still receives its water through Hezekiah’s Tunnel from the intermittent spring of Gihon. Geographical features, such as the Valley of Kidron, the Valley of Hinnom and the Mount of Olives, are still testimony to the accurate account in the Gospels.

The geographical background

The Gospels contain many geographical references that cover the land of Palestine as it was then known. It is not difficult to identify nearly all of the places mentioned, even though some of them are now only ruins, while others have been destroyed and rebuilt. Although these places would be unrecognisable today to a visitor from the first century, their place on the map remains clear enough.

Place names may change, for it was the habit of conquerors to leave their mark in this way. For example, Jerusalem became Aelia Capitolina under the Romans. But other place names, such as Tyre and Sidon, have remained the same for thousands of years. Sometimes modern Arabic names are similar to the Bible names. The rivers, the hills and even many of the roads are in the same location as they were when the Gospels were written. However, the scenery must have changed considerably, some areas being deforested and others reafforested.

The Mediterranean, the Sea of Galilee, the Dead Sea and the wilderness are still basically the same now as then.

The geographical background to the Gospels is true to fact, and the land was obviously well known to the writers. The evidence is that the Gospels were written by men who knew the territory at first hand, and were not the work of later writers.

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE STAIRWAY LEADING UP OVER ROBINSON’S ARCH TO THE PORTAL OF THE ROYAL STOA

The historical background

The Gospels are full of references to the customs, manner of life, politics and historical events of the time. These references correspond with the known history of the Roman influence in the Middle East at that time, which was recorded in detail by such historians as Pliny, Josephus and Tacitus. It seems perverse to accept without question the record of these historians, yet question the accuracy of the work of the Gospel writers. The Gospels are quoted freely in near contemporary writings, whereas these historians do not have that level of support. The more the writings of the period are studied, the more do the Gospel records stand out as being true to the times, to the customs, to the languages, to the politics and to the intrigues of that century. It becomes incredible to accept the critics’ accusation that they were written by ghostwriters of the second century.

The contemporary scene

Recent archaeological work in the old Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem has been made easier as a consequence of the destruction during the Six- Day War of 1967. Before it was rebuilt archaeologists were given the opportunity of excavating the area, which had been the district where the upper classes lived in New Testament times.

Under the supervision of Professor Nahman Avigad several of these houses have been excavated, and may now be visited and their sumptuous contents examined. Mosaic floors, elegantly painted walls (after the style of those at Pompeii), ritual baths, decorated stone tables, beautiful glass vessels and fine pottery all attest to the wealth of the inhabitants. When discovered these houses showed signs of having been destroyed by fire. Fortunately, although fire does destroy some items, it may help to preserve others. The picture presented by these discoveries is of a very rich class of Jews living in the city in the first century A.D. It would seem to be an ample confirmation of Jesus’s attitude of condemnation of the rich Jews of his time (Lk. 6:24; 16:19).

An interesting detail came to light in the excavation of the palace store rooms on Masada during Yigael Yadin’s work there in 1963-5. Herod had two palaces on this rocky eminence. Broken Roman amphorae were found bearing the significant inscription, “To Herod the Jewish King”, with the name of a variety of wine and of the Italian vintner. These 400 are thought to be good evidence of gifts of wine sent to Herod by his Roman overlord, the Emperor Augustus. Although this find is not connected to any specific Gospel incident these finds fit well into the Bible picture of the times, and are confirmed by the historical records of Josephus.

Herod’s constructions

Herod the Great was a notable builder. He had the means, the labour and the motivation to construct a large number of great buildings in an astounding variety of locations. First, he rebuilt the city of Samaria, renaming it Sebaste (the Greek form of Augustus, who was the Roman emperor who put Herod in power). Then, at Strato’s Tower on the coast of the Mediterranean, a magnificent artificial harbour was built to give the Romans easier access to their eastern provinces. Behind the harbour the city of Caesarea was constructed as a typical Roman capital, with all amenities, and named in honour of Herod’s overlord.

Meanwhile, in Jerusalem, he had a palace built for himself, whilst the Antonia Fortress was built for his protectors, the Roman army. Then, in an attempt to win the support of his resentful Jewish subjects, he began a work that has lasted to this day. The rock platform on which the Jewish temple was standing was insufficient for the great numbers of worshippers who gathered at the times of the feasts.

Seeing the need for this to be extended, he constructed what is still known as the Temple Mount, and embellished the temple, which still existed in the form of the reconstruction made in the time of Ezra and Nehemiah. The beautified temple, visited by Jesus, did not last long, but was destroyed in 70 AD. The Temple Mount was so substantial that it has lasted for twenty centuries, surviving many assaults upon the city, and several earthquakes.

Herod’s projects also included a winter palace at Jericho, an extraordinary tiered palace on the north slope of Masada, the palace/fortress of Herodium, and another at Machaerus to the east of the Dead Sea, besides constructions in other countries. The scale of all these works was so vast that it speaks volumes for Herod’s initiative and ability to organise them all, as well as for the skill of the men who designed and constructed these works.

The Gospel records contain many references to the temple and its surroundings which show an intimate knowledge of its layout and its construction. Since the temple ceased to exist in 70 A.D., as foretold by Jesus, later writers could not have had this knowledge. Jerusalem’s destruction was so complete that the site was literally “plowed as a field” as foretold by the prophet Micah (3:12); and by the second century a pagan temple stood where Herod’s temple had been.

The Roman aqueduct at Caesarea.

The enrolment

Critics have poured scorn on the naive way in which the Gospels seem to find a reason for getting Mary to Bethlehem in time for the birth of Jesus, in order to fulfil Micah’s prophecy (Mic. 5:2). Did Joseph and Mary really have to make this journey at such an awkward time for Mary?

The facts are that the Romans’ organisation of their vast empire was very thorough. Rome needed regular revenues for its colossal state expenditure. Caesar Augustus introduced a taxation system based on a regular census of the population every fourteen years. Thus it was for a census that Joseph and Mary had to make the journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem, the family home town (Lk. 2:1). An actual public notice of such a census has been found in the dry sands of Egypt, dated 104 A.D. when Egypt was still a Roman province. It reads:

“Gaius Vibius, chief prefect of Egypt. Because of the approaching census it is necessary for all those residing for any cause away from their own districts to prepare to return at once to their own governments, in order that they may complete the family administration of the enrolment, and that the tilled lands may retain those belonging to them”.

An actual census return has also been discovered in Egypt from the year 48 A.D., and in it the head of the family named everybody living in the house, with such details as would identify each person. It concluded: “If I am swearing truly, may it be well with me, if falsely, the opposite”.

Perhaps even more surprising is that a birth certificate has been found from about 150 A.D. It was prepared by a public scribe in the approved manner, naming the parents and grandparents, with their ages, and the year of the birth, but not the actual date. It was addressed to the city scribes for their official records. Although none of these discoveries has a direct bearing on the birth of Jesus, they illustrate the nature of the bureaucracy of the Roman Empire, and show that the Gospel account is in accord with the official procedure, and that there is indeed a valid reason for the journey to Bethlehem, which took no notice of Mary’s condition. The prophecy of Micah must have seemed most improbable until the census was proclaimed.

Jesus and John the Baptist

In Whiston’s translation of Josephus there is a frequently quoted reference to Jesus.(Footnote 2) However, there is reasonable doubt whether this was in the original text. It was probably added in the edition known as the Testamentum Flavianum about the third century A.D. However, there is an incidental reference to Jesus in Josephus’s account of the trial and death of James.(Footnote 3) Thus the historian was not ignorant of Jesus, but did not give him the publicity that we might have wished him to give.

Yet John the Baptist is given a significant mention in Josephus’s work, even though his impact on the scene was so brief. While there are no inscriptions to record John’s existence, there is the following literary evidence: “Some of the Jews thought that the destruction of Herod’s [the Tetrarch’s] army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment of what he did against John, who was called the baptist—for Herod slew him, who was a good man . . . “.(Footnote 4) This so casual a reference to John is completely in accord with the details found in the Gospels (Mt. 14:3-10) of the sad end of John, who was indeed a good and very brave man, who had dared to remonstrate with his ruler. There is no way in which Josephus could be said to have collaborated with the Gospel writers.

By way of explanation of the destruction of Herod’s army and John’s rebuke, this is the story. Herod Antipas married the daughter of Aretas, powerful king of Nabatea, to the east of Judea. Then he divorced her in order to marry his niece Herodias, his brother Philip’s wife. John the Baptist condemned him for this, for which he was imprisoned and killed. The enraged Aretas made war with Herod, who was defeated in 36 A.D. Herod sought revenge by persuading Rome to send an army against Aretas. This was cancelled on the death of Tiberius Caesar.

Pontius Pilate

An explanation for Pilate’s behaviour at the trial of Jesus may be found by looking at the history of his career. Roman history reveals him as an unpopular political character with both his superiors and his subjects. Both Josephus and Philo of Alexandria mention this point, for Pilate had made several serious psychological errors in dealing with the Jews:

1. He marched his legion into Jerusalem one night with effigies of Caesar on their standards, regarded as an idolatrous portrait by the Jews. In protest they lay outside his house for five days and offered to be killed rather than allow this outrage to their law.

2. Philo relates that he ordered votive shields to be hung in Herod’s palace at Jerusalem. Even Herod’s sons protested at this, and on orders from Rome the shields were removed to Caesarea.

3. Then he took money from the temple treasury to finance an aqueduct. When the Jews protested, he subdued them with force, killing many.

4. Then, as a more subtle measure, in 29 AD. he issued coins that bore an inscription of a pagan priest’s staff, a lituus. This was more difficult for the Jews to rebut, but it was seen as an insult.

5. Then coins bearing the image of Caesar were circulated, as shown to Jesus; as these were required for tribute money the Jews resented it, but could do nothing.

These confrontations were all duly reported in Rome; and, when Jesus came before him, Pilate could ill afford yet another major argument with his subjects, this time over the fate of Jesus. The consequent miscarriage of justice can be traced to Pilate’s sensitivity to his tenuous political standing. His portrait in the Gospels rings true. It might be thought unlikely that an inscription would be found bearing his name, but in 1961, in the ruins of the Roman theatre at Caesarea, a damaged stone clearly bearing the name ‘Pilatus’ was found, stating that he was Prefect of Judea in the reign of Tiberius. Thus there is now archaeological proof that Pilate was in power at the time stated in the Gospel records.

Coins and moneychangers

The fact that Jesus visited the temple and upset the tables of the moneychangers (Mt. 21:12) has caused many critics to say that it was a most unChristlike thing to do. Why did he do it? Surely it was because they had set up shop within the sacred precincts of the temple, instead of outside where commercial matters were conducted. When worshippers had got so far within the precincts they were at the mercy of the moneychangers, who could cheat such clients as had not come prepared with the appropriate half shekel (Mt. 17:24).

The coinage in circulation in Judea at that time came from several different sources. Roman coins were probably minted at Caesarea, and were needed to pay the imperial taxes. It was the denarius, bearing the image of Caesar’s head on one side, that was used to try to trick Jesus, as recorded in Matthew 22:19. Coins of Tyre and Antioch were also in use commercially, such as the drachm, the “piece of silver” of Luke 15:8. Locally minted coins were of bronze only, until 66 AD. when a few silver coins were struck. The Gospels tell of the widow’s “mite”, or farthing (Lk. 21:2), which was in fact the locally minted bronze lepton.

The Gospel account is completely in accord with the conditions and customs of the times. Judaism had developed into a commercial form of religion which was utterly distasteful to Jesus. The incident of the overthrow of the moneychangers’ tables, as well as other scenes that were critical of the ways of the Jewish people, have been faithfully recorded by Jewish writers for posterity to read. Surely this is good evidence that what was written was a true record.

Crucifixion

An archaeologist could hardly expect to find evidence of an actual crucifixion, yet in 1968 such evidence was indeed found when an ancient cemetery in Jerusalem was being investigated. Among the sundry bones in a tomb were two ankle bones impaled upon a seven-inch nail. The point of the nail had been bent when it had struck a knot in the wooden stake, and so it had been impossible to

withdraw it, as was usual when the body was taken down. Thus the victim had to be laid to rest complete with the bent nail, and some of the wood of the stake.

The cross to which the Romans nailed their victims would rot and perish, or be reused, but the iron nails could be used again and again. Such nails have been found in their thousands. They were normally used for construction work, but they could become a horrible instrument of torture when used for crucifixion. Some of these Roman nails have been found up to nine inches in length, all hand-forged by a blacksmith, having sharp spikes and heavy heads.

The New Testament word translated ‘cross’ is from the Greek stauros, which means a stake, and does not necessarily imply that the stake had a crosspiece as often portrayed by artists. The word translated ‘crucify’ is stauroo, which means literally cto fix to a stake’. It is debateable whether Roman soldiers would go to the trouble of fixing a crosspiece when the wrists of the victim could be impaled above his head, and his ankle bones impaled in the manner revealed by this discovery. It would seem to be significant that Luke, Paul and Peter all refer to the cross as a ‘tree’, the Greek word they use being xulon, which means timber, in contrast to dendron as used for a living tree.

The resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth

One would not expect to find any archaeological evidence of the resurrection of Jesus. However, the unexpected can happen. It came about this way.

During the last century a white marble slab with inscriptions was found at Nazareth and taken away to Berlin. There it was put to one side for many years. In 1930 it was eventually cleaned and examined and found to have an inscription in Greek. It was worded in most significant terms. In part it reads thus: “Ordinance of Caesar. It is my pleasure that graves and tombs remain undisturbed in perpetuity... let it be absolutely forbidden for anyone to disturb them. In the case of contravention, I desire that the offender be sentenced to capital punishment”.

Who was this Caesar? And why had this proclamation been made at Nazareth? There is good reason to conclude that the Caesar of this inscription was Claudius. It was during his reign that the Jews were expelled from Rome (49 A.D.) as recorded in Acts 18:2. The Roman historian Suetonius(Footnote 5) states that this was because of rioting in Rome “at the instigation of one Chrestus”. This Chrestus was being claimed by his followers to have risen from the dead.

The orthodox Jewish explanation of the rising from the dead was at that time, as now, that the disciples came and stole away the body (Mt. 28:13). Hence the emperor sought to control the situation by forbidding the disturbance of graves. But why was the inscription found at Nazareth? It seems most likely that Nazareth was the only town in Palestine with which the name of “the Nazarene” was associated. At this time Rome had not begun to differentiate between Jews and Christians, regarding the Christians as a sect of the Jews. Hence both Jews and Christians were dealt with alike.

While this slab of marble does not prove that Jesus rose from the dead, it is good evidence that his disciples claimed that he had, and that it was widely known that the tomb in which he had been buried was empty. The disappearance of the body of Jesus was still a matter of concern, nearly twenty years after the event, not only to Jews, but even in Rome.

FOOTNOTES

1. See “Archaeology and the Scripture Text”, p. 329.

2. Antiquities of the Jews, Book 18, chapter 3.3.

3. Book 20, chapter 9.1.

4. Book 18, chapter 5.2.

5. Claudius, 25.

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