S. L. HALE

AT THE OUTBREAK of the First World War in 1914 the Middle East was dominated by the Turkish Empire, but the defeat of the Germanic powers led to very important changes. It was difficult for the victorious nations to reach agreement on what should happen because of their individual aims and ambitions, and because of Arab nationalism, but eventually Britain was given the mandate over Palestine, Arabia, and Mesopotamia, while France received the mandate over Lebanon and Syria. Egypt which, although nominally a part of the Turkish Empire, had been occupied by British troops since 1882, was to become a British protectorate.

The area to the west of the river Jordan had always been a difficult one for Turkey to control because of the resentment of the fiercely independent Arab tribes. After the war it had been Britain’s intention to see this mandated area develop into an independent Arab state, but in this she was forestalled to some extent by the Emir Abdullah when in 1922 he and some Arab tribesmen occupied Amman. The Emir’s upbringing had made him peculiarly suitable for dealing with the British and the French, as well as the differing classes of Arab society. His position was confirmed when Britain agreed that he should be the ruler of what became known as Trans-Jordan.

At the end of the Second World War further important changes took place in the Middle East. British forces were in control of much of the area when hostilities ceased. The British Government encouraged the formation in 1945 of the Arab League, and subsequent to this several countries which were either mandated territories or occupied became independent. The division of Palestine, the giving up of the mandate by Britain, and the setting up of the State of Israel in 1948 were followed by the area on the western side of the river Jordan in Arab hands being united with Trans-Jordan, the combined territory being known as the Kingdom of Jordan with Amman as its capital.

Later a number of political upheavals occurred in some of the newly independent countries, and political conditions in the Middle East remain very brittle. The Arab peoples find it most difficult if not impossible to reach long-term agreement on many important issues. However, the one thing on which they are able to present a common front is their implacable hatred of Israel. This has been underlined by the four wars against Israel since 1948 and by Arab determination to regain those parts of the territory which Israel took over after the war of 1967, including the highly prized and holy city of Jerusalem.

Egypt has had a continuous history for about 5,000 years. This long history can be divided roughly into three sections; the first is that period when she was self-governing except for the times when occupied by the Hyksos and later by the Assyrians; the second is that long time under foreign domination; and the third is the time since 1956 when she regained full independence.

The first period began about 3,200 B.C. When the regions of Upper and Lower Egypt were united under King Menes. It ended in 525 B.C. When the Persians under Cambyses invaded and conquered the country. This long epoch itself falls into three main divisions. First was the time of the Old Kingdom—the age of the Pyramids—which lasted until 2270 B.C. It was followed by the age of the Middle Kingdom which ended about 1800 B.C.: this was the time when Egyptian art and science flourished. Following this was a period when the foreign Hyksos kings were in control, and when they were eventually driven out Egypt entered upon the age of the Empire. But the pushing of the frontiers to Ethiopia in the south and as far as the river Tigris in the north proved too much of a burden. Some of the territory was seized by the Libyans, some by the Hittites, and Egypt lost a large labour force when the Hebrews left the country under the leadership of Moses. A long decline followed which lasted for several centuries until the coming of the Persians.

The Persian invasion and occupation began the very long epoch of Egyptian history when she had to submit to foreigners. It lasted for nearly 2,500 years. When the Persian Empire gave way to that of the Greeks under Alexander the Great, Egypt remained in bondage to the new master. When he died and his kingdom was shared between his four generals, the country was ruled by the Macedonian dynasty of the Ptolemies until the death of Cleopatra, the last of them. The great Middle East power then was Rome. In 31 B.C. Egypt became a Roman province. She was under Roman control until the break-up of the Western Empire and then came under the Byzantine Empire. Domination eventually passed to the Saracens and later to the Turks. The Turkish hold was terminated in 1917, and Britain was in occupation. In 1936 all British troops except those guarding the Suez Canal had been withdrawn. In 1952 a military coup resulted in the king being deposed and General Neguib became President of the country. He himself was replaced in 1954 by Nasser who had been his Prime Minister. Under Nasser the demands for full independence became very insistent and this was achieved in 1956. Nasser saw himself as the leader of the Egyptian and Arab peoples. In 1958 he formed the United Arab Republic by persuading Syria to join Egypt but this was ended in 1961 when a military coup in Syria led to that country breaking away from the Republic. Since Nasser’s death, Sadat has been President of Egypt. Nasser’s burning hatred of Israel, especially after his humiliation in the war of 1967, drove him in his determination to wipe out the State of Israel. He did not succeed. Sadat, with similar determination and after long preparations, was joined by the Syrians in the opening of hostilities against Israel in the Yom Kippur war of 1973. A surprise attack caught Israel off balance, fierce fighting took place, and some Israeli positions were over-run in Sinai, but a counter-attack in which Israel occupied some territory on the west bank of the Suez Canal was followed by a cease-fire and troop withdrawals.

Russia has played an important part in the recent history of Egypt. The supply of Russian arms boosted the pride of Nasser. The large number of Russian technicians was withdrawn at Sadat’s request, but many Russian weapons including missiles were used against Israel in the last war. At present, however, Egypt seems more ready to accept guidance from America than from Russia.

Egypt is mentioned many times in the Scriptures. Some of these deal with the contacts the two countries had with each other from time to time, especially when the Hebrews were in the land of Egypt and during the great exodus which followed. But some of the references to Egypt are prophetic and in the light of Egyptian history are very revealing. For example, in Ezekiel we read, “It shall be the basest of kingdoms; neither shall it exalt itself any more above the nations; for I will diminish them, that they shall no more rule over the nations” (29:15). It will be noted that this prophecy which dates from about 600 B.C. Implies that although Egypt was to be a base nation it would remain in being.

Another example is in Ezekiel 30:13 : “And there shall be no more a prince of the land of Egypt”. This has also received a remarkable fulfilment. It is true that there was a king ruling in Egypt when the royal family was deposed by Neguib, but King Farouk and his predecessors were not Egyptians but descendants of an Albanian.

Other remarkable utterances about Egypt were made by the prophets of the Old Testament. Some of these have to do with some of the cities of Egypt, e.g. Ezekiel 30:13-16, where Noph (Memphis) and No (No-Amon or Thebes) are mentioned. History reveals how these prophecies were fulfilled. Others have a wider application, and to one of these we shall return later. A useful commentary on the fulfilment of prophecies against Egypt can be found in John Urquhart’s Wonders of Prophecy. Set against Bible prophecy the dreams of Egyptian leaders of their country becoming a great Middle-Eastern nation are illusory.

Its full name is the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, and its birth has been described as follows in the Larousse Encyclopaedia of World Geography: “An artificially created state, Trans-Jordan was born of the liquidation of the Ottoman Empire after the First World War, and the division of the Arab world into states under French or British mandate. The frontiers of this kingdom, allotted to Abdullah, son of Hussein, King of the Hijaz, were marked out geometrically between Syria, Iraq, Arabia and Palestine, solely in order that the southern leg of the Iraq Petroleum Company’s pipeline should be entirely under British control. In 1946 Great Britain granted Trans- Jordan independence, but by a treaty of alliance the British kept control of the instruction and command of the army (the “Arab Legion”), as well as retaining a great degree of economic and political influence; this treaty was terminated in March 1957”.

King Abdullah was assassinated in 1951. In 1952 Hussein became king after his father had been deposed. Jordan joined the Arab nations in the 1967 war against Israel and as a result lost all the land she held on the west bank of the river Jordan, including that part of Jerusalem she had seized in 1948. Defeat in this war left Jordan in a very weak political and economic position, exacerbated by the thousands of refugees from Palestine. In the 1973 war Jordanian troops fought in Syria against Israel but made no attempt to cross the river Jordan to regain lost territory.

There are numerous references in Scripture to Jordan under the names of Moab, Edom, Ammon and Idumea. Outstanding ones are in the prophecy of Obadiah and in Ezekiel 25 which clearly indicate that when the age-old struggle between the Arabs and the Jews reaches its climax Jordan will be among the defeated Arabs.

This is the smallest country in the Middle East. It is a mountainous strip about 30 miles wide stretching 130 miles along the Mediterranean coast north of Israel. Part of it was the original Phoenicia, and the cities of Tyre and Zidon have long histories. After a long period of Turkish control followed by a French mandate it became independent in 1946.

Although considered to be an Arab country—and the most advanced—less than half the population of Lebanon are Moslems. About half are Christians and many of its peoples are descended from political and religious refugees.

Lebanon joined in the 1948 war against Israel but took no active part in the three wars since. There have been many incidents on the border with Israel but these were due to Palestinian guerilla tactics rather than to the Lebanese themselves. The reason for this Lebanese attitude is that its large Christian population prefers to seek a political rather than a military solution to the Palestine question.

That part of the fertile crescent through which run the rivers Euphrates and Tigris witnessed the rise and fall of several large empires. The earliest was Assyria, followed by Babylon. Subsequently the Medes and Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans, held sway over these regions.

It was the Greeks who coined the name “Mesopotamia” for the area between the two rivers. Today most of this is part of Iraq. Some forms part of modern Syria. The name of Syria is thought to be either an abbreviation of “Assyria” or a word derived from the Babylonian “Suri”. To the ancient Hebrews the land now known as Syria was Aram. It is clear that over the centuries the name Syria has been applied to varying territories. At one time it covered all modern Syria and Lebanon, at other times it meant Syria and Lebanon and Jordan, and it has also been applied to Syria and Trans-Jordan. Today the frontiers with neighbouring Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Israel, and Turkey are well defined although the fighting along the Golan Heights tends to blur the picture there. Syria has an outlet to the sea north of Lebanon.

Because of its central position Israel was often the battle ground between the great powers of the Middle East. In turn it fell under the sway of these as did the other smaller nations in the area. On many occasions the prophets of Israel spoke to the nation about the troubles which were coming from the north. And, as anticipated, the downfall and destruction of Israel was brought about by the invasions of the Assyrians in 722 B.C. And by the Babylonians in 585 B.C. But in looking to the climax of the ages the prophets frequently used the name of Assyria to describe the latter-day enemy.

Modern Syria became independent in 1946. The mandate which had been given to France after the First World War was thus terminated. In the 1948 war Syria joined in the futile attempt to destroy the new State of Israel. Her hatred of Israel is intense. When Nasser proposed that Syria should join Egypt as the United Arab Republic her government agreed, but an internal coup led to a break-away from Egypt in 1961. Border incidents against Israel followed up to the 1967 war, and after some respite were resumed along the Golan Heights. Fierce fighting between the two countries took place during the Yom Kippur war of 1973, but after the cease-fire between the opposing forces on all fronts Syria showed great reluctance to follow Egypt either in talks about troop withdrawals or about a wider peace settlement. Iraqi troops also fought against Israel in 1973. To do so they joined the Syrian forces.

In common with some of its neighbours Iraq also formed part of the Turkish Empire. The mandate given to the French was ended in 1932, but since then there has been a great deal of unrest in the country. King Feisal was succeeded by his son and then his grandson, but during the regency, until 1953, control was in the hands of the new King’s uncle. Both uncle and nephew were assassinated and General Kassem became Prime Minister. A subsequent coup displaced Kassem. Hatred of Israel remains. Russia is playing an increasingly important part in the affairs of Iraq as in most of the Middle-East countries.

Israel is again to be attacked from the north. The modern representatives of the Assyrians and Syrians will be drawn into the land. The motives for this will be mixed. The Arab nations still desire to destroy the State of Israel. Russia still seeks world dominion and sees in conquest or complete control of the Middle East a big step forward towards this goal. The modern Assyrian is to come into the land as the Prophet Micah declared, for in the context of a ruler of Israel being born in Bethlehem he says, “And this shall be peace, when the Assyrian comes into our land and treads upon our soil, that we will raise against him seven shepherds and eight princes of men; they shall rule the land of Assyria with the sword, and the land of Nimrod with the drawn sword, and they shall deliver us from the Assyrian when he comes into our land and treads within our border” (Micah 5:5, 6 RSV). Other nations will become embroiled in a new Middle-East war. The northern invader of Ezekiel 38 and 39— and there is little doubt that the leader of this group will be Russia—will also bring into the conflict Persia (Iran) and Libya, but the outcome for them all will be an overwhelming defeat.

The prophet Isaiah looks beyond this defeat, to the time when a redistribution of the land will see the fulfilment of the promise made to Abraham, “Unto thy seed have I given this land, from the river of Egypt unto the great river, the river Euphrates” (Gen.15:18). At that time the closing words of Isaiah 19:23-25 will also be fulfilled: “In that day shall there be a highway out of Egypt to Assyria, and the Assyrian shall come into Egypt, and the Egyptian into Assyria, and the Egyptians shall serve with the Assyrians. In that day shall Israel be the third with Egypt and with Assyria, even a blessing in the midst of the land: Whom the Lord of hosts shall bless, saying, Blessed be Egypt My people, and Assyria the work of My hands, and Israel Mine inheritance”.

“I wish the Vatican could play a role in persuading the Arabs to approach our way of thinking, but I’m afraid that the Vatican will most likely just stick to the Christian problem—and we will most likely have a confrontation over Jerusalem.”